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Hashemi Moghaddam A, Namdarpour Z, Esfandi S, Rezaei F. (2026). The Study of Contexts of Illegal Excavations of Historical Sites in Mazandaran Province. Athar. 46(111), 7-28. doi:10.61882/Athar.2174.4192.1
URL: http://athar.richt.ir/article-2-2174-en.html

Abstract
Alongside archaeologists who carefully and meticulously excavate historical sites, unauthorized diggers, without any restrictions or restraints, attack these sites and cultural heritage with picks and axes in order to find treasure - which in their opinion is nothing but gold and jewelry - based on the stories they have heard and the wishes they have in their hearts. Considering the spread of this phenomenon in Mazandaran Province, in this study researchers are investigating the reasons for the prevalence of treasure hunting in Iran and especially Mazandaran. In addition to investigating this issue, the main question is why, despite the widespread belief in the existence of treasure among Mazandarani people, only a small number of them dig and search for treasure? In other words, what characteristics do these diggers have that other people of their social and economic class do not have? To obtain the necessary data and information, in addition to reviewing historical documents, 25 people from different parts of Mazandaran who believe in the existence of treasure in this province and sometimes have a history of illegal excavation were interviewed until the research reached theoretical saturation. These data were analyzed using Merton’s anomie theory and Sutherland’s differential association. Based on this theories, the prevalence of belief in the existence of treasure and the desire to find treasure in the current era is mainly due to the lack of a clear perspective for accessing suitable economic opportunities, which causes people to try their luck through abnormal behaviors such as treasure hunting. Meanwhile, the group that has the most contact with diggers or social media pages that promote treasure hunting is more likely than others to turn to digging.
Keywords: Illegal Excavation, Treasure Hunting, Mazandaran Province, Anomie, Differential Association.

Introduction
The interest in finding treasure in artifacts left over from the past has an ancient history; but after technical advances that, on the one hand, made it easier for humans to move around by motorized vehicles and, on the other hand, led to the construction of metal detectors, the activities of unauthorized diggers became more widespread. This is why Dillinger (2012: 194) believes that the spread of treasure hunting is essentially a modern phenomenon and was never so prevalent in the past. In recent years, this activity and other activities related to it have expanded greatly (Çelik, 2020: 17).
Although this phenomenon can be considered general and is common almost everywhere in the world, some places may occur more or less due to certain factors such as cultural and social backgrounds, economic conditions, geological situation, historical background, etc. Mazandaran is one of the places where such illegal excavations are carried out frequently. This research attempts to answer two questions: What cultural, social, and economic contexts lead to the widespread belief among Mazandarani people that there are abundant treasures in this province? Why do only a few and not all of them actually engage in illegal excavations?
To achieve the answers to these questions, the present research was conducted mainly based on qualitative methods. In this method, the researchers benefited from both documentary and fieldwork data. In the documentary section, we explored the following sources: a review of the approved and relevant laws on illegal excavations, articles related to treasure hunting, countless media reports in this field that are published almost every day in the country’s media, and finally, virtual social networks (especially Instagram) that are full of pages related to treasure hunting, sales of treasure hunting devices, and so on. In the field section, the main technique was in-depth semi-structured interviews and also participant observations in some cases. The statistical population was all believers in the existence of treasure and the possibility of accessing it by treasure-finding devices or amulets and prayers in Mazandaran province. Some of them have also engaged in illegal excavations themselves. The statistical sample was initially selected using the simple access method and then expanded using the snowball method. The interviews continued until theoretical saturation was reached with 25 interviews. Some of the authors also visited the excavated sites and supplemented their field information in this regard.

Findings
Historical sources show that at least a thousand years ago, extensive excavations have been carried out in Mazandaran to access treasures (Khalili and Rezaei, 2019). In the contemporary period, based on the interviews in the present study, several important reasons for illegal excavations in Mazandaran are listed:
1. Legal weakness: Relevant laws to punishment for activities related to illegal excavation in Iran is still incomplete and not up to date. For example, while the use of treasure-finding devices is prohibited, these devices can be easily purchased from sellers.
2. Economic situation: Iranian researchers (Arvand, 2012; Ghani-Kallelu, 2009) and foreign (Foster, 1971: 310; Dillinger, 2012: 190; Çelik, 2020: 17) generally refer to the economic dimension of excavation and the financial needs of diggers. The findings of some interviews also confirm this reason. Limited opportunities to achieve legitimate goals are a prerequisite for deviation (Rubington and Weinberg, 2003: 104).
3. Virtual advertising: Based on some interviews, many people believe the advertisements of treasure-finding device sellers on social networks and are encouraged to engage in illegal excavation (Hashemi-Moghaddam et al., 2026 a). Increased opportunities for learning anomies is one of the most important reasons for anomies (Rubington and Weinberg, 2003: 104).
4. Treasure-hunting films and series: Many films and series about finding treasure have been made all over the world, including Iran, and many viewers become (more) convinced of the existence of treasure after watching them (Hashemi-Moghaddam et al., 2026 a).
5. Misleading names: In Mazandaran province, as in other parts of the country, some villages or natural features such as hills have names that lead the listener’s mind to the existence of gold and treasure. It was stated in interviews that excavations in villages such as “Tala-Jou” (gold researcher), “Zar-Kati” (the hill of gold) and “Ganj-Afrooz” (treasure igniting) in this province are due to their names.
6. Curiosity and interest in historical objects: Many people do this work not for wealth and overnight riches, but for the sense of curiosity and the pleasure of searching for something that is hidden and needs to be discovered. Access to abnormal methods of emotional release is one of the conditions that increases the background for anomie (Rubington and Weinberg. 2003: 104).
Among the above reasons, this study emphasizes the economic reasons for those who believe in the existence of treasure and the reasons related to treasure hunting education for those who dig. Iranians have experienced double-digit inflation rates in the last five decades, which has caused them to become increasingly poor. This inflation and increasing poverty, which are accompanied by other issues such as unemployment, extreme sanctions, and successive wars with superpower countries, lead to despair and a lack of prospects for the future. It is in such an environment that Merton believes that deviance is a natural response to this unnatural environment and illegal excavation is one of these types of deviance. Illegal excavation in these circumstances is an “innovative” tool to achieve a goal and ideal that is accepted in society; namely wealth and property. Foster shows that in order to reduce belief in treasure stories, opportunities must be expanded in an open system (1971: 311); because, as Çelik (2020: 38) says, when people are disappointed with the aboveground, they go underground. On the other hand, as Sutherland and Cressey (1978) pointed out, social learning plays an important role in deviance. The claim of this study is that people who have more contact with diggers or treasure hunting advertisements are more inclined to dig.

Conclusion
The findings of this study showed that the phenomenon of illegal excavation is widespread from east to west of Mazandaran. Traces of excavations to find treasure in this region can be seen in historical sources at least up to about a thousand years ago. All of these factors have come together to ensure that a significant portion of the people of this province continue to welcome excavation and treasure hunting. In fact, this welcome can be theoretical or practical. Theoretical welcome for treasure hunting is more like believing in the existence of treasure and the possibility of accessing it. However, practical welcome means that people not only believe in the existence of treasure in Mazandaran, but also undertake illegal excavation to access it. Based on what has been stated, in order to reduce deviant behaviors such as excavation and treasure hunting, at least three solutions must be adopted: First, creating a clear vision for the future of Iran and Iranians. Unfortunately, in the current conditions of the country, this solution does not seem to be practical, at least in the short term. Second, formal and even informal education on the importance of historical and natural heritage and the need to preserve them, the falsehood of most treasure and excavation stories, the possibility of fraud by people claiming to be in this field, showing the experiences of people who failed in treasure hunting and paid a lot of material, physical and mental costs and etc. Third, updating the country’s laws and dealing legally with those who they encourage others to buy treasure-hunting devices, treasure maps, treasure charms, participate in treasure-hunting courses, and other such activities. It is almost certain that if these three conditions are not implemented simultaneously, there will be little success, and the diggers will continue to hurt the country’s cultural and natural heritage, as well as their financial and family lives.