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Mohammadkhani K, Ahmadi Tabat P. (2026). Research on Cosmetic Implements in Ancient Iran Based on Archaeological Evidence from the Achaemenid Period to the End of the Sasanian Period. Athar. 47(2), 34-7. doi:10.66224/Athar.2042.4063.2
URL: http://athar.richt.ir/article-2-2042-en.html

Cosmetic artifacts in ancient Iran, as one of the earliest manifestations of cultural expression, exhibited distinct forms and typologies across successive historical periods. This study focuses on the functional and symbolic significance of these artifacts in order to identify a relatively understudied domain of Iranian material culture. It further offers a novel approach to understanding social structures, belief systems, and ritual practices. Such a study provides critical insights into daily life, social hierarchies, and ceremonial activities in ancient Iran. This research addresses two primary questions: first, what was the historical and cultural significance of cosmetic artifacts in ancient Iran; and second, which social groups predominantly employed these tools. To answer these questions, archaeological and historical evidence was analyzed through a synthesis of excavation findings and textual sources. Employing a descriptive-analytical methodology, data were collected via both library-based research and museum studies. Following this methodological framework, the study focuses on seven principal categories of cosmetic artifacts, examples of which are preserved in the Glass and Ceramics Museum of Iran, as well as in international museums and private collections, including the British Museum, the Louvre Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the University of Pennsylvania Museum. Based on the evidence examined, cosmetic artifacts were not merely an integral part of daily life but also that their continuity across historical periods underscores their enduring cultural and historical significance. During the early periods, these tools were primarily employed in palatial and ceremonial contexts; over time, however, they became more simplified and functional, gradually spreading across different social groups. Despite their cultural importance, there has been no comprehensive, stand-alone study specifically focused on cosmetic artifacts in ancient Iran. Therefore, a comparative analysis of archaeological evidence and textual sources not only enhances our understanding of the social and cultural role of these tools but also addresses a significant scholarly gap in the study of ancient Iranian material culture.
Keywords: Cosmetic Artifacts, Ancient Iran, Material Culture, Archaeological Evidence.

Introduction
The art of adornment represents a distinctive expression of human culture, especially as reflected in cosmetic and personal grooming artifacts playing a central role in human life from prehistoric times to late antiquity. Across successive historical periods particularly from the Achaemenid to the Sasanian era this art took various material forms, including cosmetic instruments, perfume bottles, and personal jewelry.
Archaeological findings from major sites such as Persepolis, Susa, Ctesiphon, and Bandian reveal a diverse range of personal adornment objects that illustrate how this cultural practice manifested in daily life. These artifacts include kohl containers, perfume bottles, cosmetic palettes, mirrors, wooden combs, tweezers, and implements used for nail care and personal grooming. While these items fulfilled practical needs, they also embody the aesthetic preferences, beliefs, and socio-cultural structures of the communities that produced and used them.
The technical and artistic sophistication of these artifacts is evident in the wide range of materials used, including stone, bronze, glass, wood, and ivory. Meticulous craftsmanship demonstrates advanced production techniques and a highly developed artistic sensibility in ancient Iranian societies. In addition to archaeological objects, complementary sources including visual materials such as rock reliefs, coinage, and seal impressions, as well as textual evidence like clay tablets offer valuable insights into the role and perception of personal adornment across different historical epochs. The integration of material culture and written documentation allows for a nuanced socio-cultural reconstruction of historical contexts, highlighting patterns of intercultural exchange and the spread of artistic styles.

Methods
This research employs a descriptive analytical methodology integrating both library-based and museum-based approaches. Through detailed examination and comparative analysis of the artifacts, the research investigates their historical and cultural significance, and further identifies the social groups that utilized them. By systematically categorizing and evaluating these objects, the study uses this methodological framework to elucidate multiple dimensions of the art of personal adornment, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of its role within the broader historical and cultural heritage of Iran.

Discussion
The present study examines a diverse assemblage of artifacts associated with personal adornment practices, including vessels such as kohl containers and perfume bottles, grooming tools such as combs and tweezers, as well as mirrors and cosmetic palettes, all of which were recovered from excavations conducted both within Iran at sites such as Susa and Sarpol-e Zahab and beyond its territorial boundaries, including Ctesiphon, Bahrain, Bargouthiat, and several locations in Anatolia. Among these finds, one of the most remarkable objects is a perfume bottle bearing an inscription in three languages Old persian, Elamite, and Babylonian written in cuneiform. Although certain portions of the inscription are lost, a segment identifying “Xerxes, the Great King” remains legible, providing critical historical context for the social function and significance of the perfume bottle.
The artifacts exhibit considerable variation in material, form, and manufacturing technique, and have therefore been categorized into discrete groups according to their functional typologies. In terms of raw material, they encompass stone, ivory, wood, copper, bronze, and glass. In terms of shape, the items range from cylindrical, rectangular, to teardrop-shaped forms. Some bear intricate engraved ornamentation geometric, floral, or anthropomorphic motifs or epigraphic inscriptions, while others remain unadorned.
In terms of manufacturing techniques, a range of methods was employed in their production, including casting, clay molding, mold-blown glass, and carving. 
Currently housed in major institutions including the Glassware and Ceramic Museum of Iran (Abgineh), the Louvre Museum, the Miho Museum, the British Museum, the Ashmolean Museum, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art these artifacts collectively provide a precise understanding of the evolution of form and style, as well as the continuity of personal adornment objects across successive historical periods.
  
Conclusion 
The analysis reveals that cosmetic tools served multilayered roles across all three historical periods. The research aimed to assess both the historical and cultural significance of these artifacts and to identify the social groups that used them.The findings indicate that these objects served purposes beyond personal aesthetic practices. They also held social, cultural, and ritual significance. Their continuous presence from the Achaemenid to the Sasanian periods reflects the enduring value placed on grooming and beauty in ancient Iranian society. Written sources, reliefs, inscriptions, and seal impressions from all three periods confirm that these cosmetic tools were used in both private and public contexts. Comparative analysis of archaeological evidence alongside textual and artistic sources shows that cosmetic tools initially held a key role in courtly and ritual contexts. Inscribed Achaemenid perfume bottles, along with Persepolis fortification tablets and related reliefs, reflect the prestigious status of these items among the elite. These elite-centered patterns in the Achaemenid period establish an early connection between cosmetic tools and social status. This pattern evolves in the Parthian period, where the diversity and application of cosmetic tools expanded across various social strata, particularly in formal events such as festivals, coronations, and religious ceremonies. The replacement of stone perfume bottles with glass vessels not only indicates technological advances but also reflects shifts in artistic preferences and broader cultural transformations.
Based on the available evidence, attention to personal grooming and aesthetics appears to have intensified during the Sasanian period, extending into economic and industrial spheres, as suggested by the flourishing perfume industry in Bishapur and other cities in Fars. Cosmetic tools of this era featured simpler forms and more refined craftsmanship, indicating an emphasis on practical and routine use.
Both textual and archaeological evidence further indicates that these tools were used by both women and men. Inscriptions on perfume bottles mentioning Achaemenid kings attest to shared gender usage, while archaeological examples of kohl containers, perfume bottles, combs, mirrors, and cosmetic palettes in both male and female forms confirm their symbolic and practical significance across genders.
Despite these findings, several limitations remain. In particular, there is a lack of sufficient data regarding cosmetic tools commonly used by lower social strata, likely due to poor preservation conditions or the constraints of archaeological excavations. Determining the exact function of some artifacts is also challenging. Therefore, future research should focus on laboratory analyses of residual materials in cosmetic implements, such as cosmetic palettes and kohl containers, reassessment of recent archaeological findings, and examination of less-studied artifacts. Such approaches could help reconstruct the cultural and social significance of cosmetic tools and provide a deeper understanding of grooming practices in ancient Iran.