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Akbar Molaei Z, Kolbadinejad M, Mortezayi M. (2026). The Evolution of Worldview and the Epistemological Function of Wonders in the Islamic Tradition: A Comparative Study of the Works of Zakariya Qazvini and Shoja Heydari. Athar. 48(1), 89-113. doi:10.66224/Athar.1932.4014.1
URL: http://athar.richt.ir/article-2-1932-en.html

Abstract
In the Islamic intellectual and literary tradition, ʿajāʾib (wonder-graphic) texts reflect the intricate connections among religion, knowledge, imagination, and experience, playing a pivotal role in shaping Muslims’ understanding of the natural and human worlds. Despite the significance of this tradition, systematic comparative research investigating the relationship between worldview and literary style in works from different historical periods remains limited. Using an analytical-comparative approach, this study examines the worldview, stylistic variations, and epistemological functions of the “marvelous” in two prominent works: ʿAjāʾib al-Makhlūqāt wa Gharāʾib al-Mawjūdāt by Zakariya al-Qazvini and ʿAjāʾib al-Buldān attributed to Shoja Heydari. The research methodology is based on comparative content analysis, utilizing data collected through archival library research and textual analysis of the original works. The analysis is structured around five thematic axes: cosmology, climatology, anthropological perspective, literary style and language, and the relationship between science and myth. The findings reveal that Qazvini, influenced by the epistemological traditions of the Middle Islamic period, represents wonders through a theological, systematic, and holistic lens. In contrast, Shoja Heydari, writing within the context of the intellectual developments of later periods, adopts a more empirical, cultural, and ethnographic approach. These differing paradigms are clearly reflected in the structural organization of their worldviews, their narrative styles, and the epistemological functions they assign to wonders. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that evolving historical and epistemological contexts played a decisive role in transforming the concept of “wonders” from a theological-educational instrument of contemplation into a descriptive-cultural phenomenon.
Kwywords: ʿAjāʾib-graphy, Zakariya Qazvini, Shoja Heydari, comparative literature, Islamic cosmology, ethnography.

Introduction
The literature of ʿajāʾib (wonders or marvels) occupies a distinctive position within the intellectual and literary heritage of the Islamic world. Far beyond serving as mere entertaining narratives about exotic creatures or extraordinary locales, these texts functioned as sophisticated vehicles for explaining cosmic structure, communicating religious and philosophical concepts, and preserving geographical and cultural knowledge. Throughout successive historical periods, Muslim scholars employed the concept of wonders to bridge the visible (shahāda) and invisible (ghayb) realms, integrating empirical observations with theological interpretations and literary imagination. Consequently, the tradition of ʿajāʾib literature provides valuable insight into the evolution of Islamic epistemology, cosmology, and worldview.
Among the numerous works produced within this genre, Zakariya al-Qazwini’s ʿAjāʾib al-Makhlūqāt wa Gharāʾib al-Mawjūdāt (thirteenth century CE) represents one of the most influential encyclopedic texts of medieval Islamic civilization. Integrating philosophy, natural science, geography, and theology, Qazwini presents a highly structured schema of the universe in which every creature and phenomenon reflects divine wisdom and cosmic harmony. By contrast, the work attributed to Shoja Heydari, ʿAjāʾib al-Buldān, reflects a different intellectual milieu. Rather than emphasizing a rigid cosmological hierarchy, it devotes greater attention to geographical diversity, local customs, human societies, and descriptive observations derived from travel traditions and regional itineraries. This contrast illustrates the gradual shift in Islamic wonder literature from a primarily theological and cosmological discourse toward a more descriptive and ethnographic mode of knowledge production.
Despite the significance of these texts, previous studies have frequently concentrated on manuscript description, artistic illustrations, or isolated literary analyses. Comparative investigations examining how shifting historical contexts influenced the epistemological function of wonders remain relatively scarce. Understanding these transformations is essential because the concept of the marvelous is inextricably linked to broader developments in Islamic intellectual history, including developments in scientific inquiry, geographical knowledge, narrative techniques, and cross-cultural interaction.
This study, therefore, aims to compare the worldview, narrative structure, and epistemological functions of wonders in the works of Zakariya al-Qazvini and Shoja Heydari. Utilizing a descriptive-analytical and comparative content analysis methodology, the research evaluates the texts across five interconnected dimensions: cosmology, geography and climatology, anthropological perspectives, literary style, and the relationship between science and myth. Through this comparative analysis, the study demonstrates how the concept of “wonders” evolved across distinct intellectual epochs, reflecting broader transformations in the Islamic comprehension of nature, humanity, and epistemology.

Discussion
The comparative analysis of the two selected texts demonstrates that the concept of wonders underwent substantial transformation alongside changes in the intellectual and cultural history of the Islamic world. Although both works belong to the same literary tradition, they differ significantly in their objectives, methods of representation, and epistemological assumptions. These differences reveal how Islamic scholars adapted the genre of ʿajāʾib literature to respond to shifting understandings of knowledge, geography, religion, and society.
Zakariya al-Qazwini presents a highly systematic cosmological framework in which every extraordinary phenomenon is interpreted within the divine order of creation. Wonders function not merely as unusual occurrences but as signs (āyāt) that manifest God’s wisdom, omnipotence, and purposeful design. His encyclopedic organization reflects the clear influence of Greco-Islamic philosophy, Aristotelian natural science, and Islamic theological cosmology. Consequently, the marvelous becomes an educational instrument that encourages readers to contemplate creation while reinforcing religious faith. In his text, empirical observations, mythical narratives, and theological explanations coexist harmoniously, illustrating the integrated nature of medieval Islamic knowledge.
In contrast, the work attributed to Shoja Heydari adopts a more descriptive and human-centered perspective. Rather than focusing on universal cosmology, the text emphasizes regional geography, local traditions, customs, ethnic diversity, and accounts derived from travel and direct observation. Wonders are presented primarily as remarkable characteristics of particular places and societies rather than as theological symbols within a universal cosmological system. This shift reflects broader intellectual developments in which empirical observation, cultural description, and ethnographic interests gained greater prominence alongside traditional religious interpretations.
The stylistic differences between the two works further reinforce these contrasting approaches. Qazwini employs formal, scholarly, and encyclopedic language enriched by philosophical and scientific terminology, whereas Heydari’s narrative style is comparatively simpler, more descriptive, and more accessible. His attention to everyday cultural practices and local experiences produces a text that resembles historical geography and ethnographic writing more than cosmological literature.
These findings indicate that the evolution of wonder literature was not simply a literary phenomenon but also an epistemological transformation. The changing role of wonders mirrors broader shifts in Islamic intellectual history from metaphysical explanations of reality toward a greater appreciation of observation, regional diversity, and human experience. Rather than replacing religious interpretations, empirical perspectives expanded the range of knowledge represented within ʿajāʾib literature. Therefore, both texts should be understood as complementary stages in the historical development of Islamic knowledge production, each reflecting the intellectual priorities of its respective period.

Conclusion
This comparative study demonstrates that the literature of wonders (ʿajāʾib) occupies a central position in the intellectual history of Islamic civilization, illustrating the dynamic relationships among religion, science, geography, mythology, and cultural knowledge. The analysis of Zakariya al-Qazwini’s ʿAjāʾib al-Makhlūqāt wa Gharāʾib al-Mawjūdāt and the work attributed to Shoja Heydari, ʿAjāʾib al-Buldān, reveals that although both texts belong to the same literary tradition, they represent distinct developmental stages in the evolution of the Islamic worldview and epistemological thought.
Qazwini’s work reflects a medieval cosmological perspective in which the universe is organized according to a divine order, and every marvelous phenomenon serves as evidence of God’s wisdom and creative power. Wonders, therefore, function as theological, educational, and philosophical instruments designed to deepen the reader’s understanding of creation. In contrast, the work attributed to Shoja Heydari demonstrates a more pronounced interest in regional geography, cultural diversity, social customs, and lived human experience. Within his text, the marvelous becomes a descriptive category through which unfamiliar places, peoples, and traditions are documented and interpreted. This comparative analysis illustrates how the concept of wonders gradually expanded beyond cosmological explanation to encompass broader forms of cultural and geographical knowledge.
The findings further suggest that Islamic wonder literature cannot be regarded as a static or homogeneous tradition. Instead, it evolved dynamically in response to shifting historical contexts, intellectual developments, and changing paradigms of knowledge production. The transition from a predominantly theological and cosmological orientation toward a more empirical and ethnographic perspective reflects wider transformations within Islamic scholarship, wherein observation, travel, and intercultural encounters increasingly influenced literary representation.
From a broader academic perspective, this study contributes to the fields of comparative Islamic literature, intellectual history, and the history of knowledge by highlighting the epistemological significance of ʿajāʾib literature. Rather than treating these texts solely as collections of myths or entertaining narratives, scholars should recognize them as vital historical sources that reveal how Muslim intellectuals conceptualized nature, humanity, geography, and the interface between the visible (shahāda) and invisible (ghayb) realms.
Future research could expand this comparative framework by examining other wonder-graphic texts from diverse geographical regions and historical epochs, or by integrating manuscript studies, visual culture, and digital humanities methodologies. Such investigations would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the diversity and development of Islamic wonder literature and further illuminate its enduring contribution to the intellectual and cultural history of the Islamic world.