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Khanali H, Feyzi F. (2025). Manifestations of Traditionalism and Mongol Tribal Concepts in the Arts of the Ilkhanid Period: An Analytical Study Based on Archaeological and Historical Data. Athar. 46(108), 39-63. doi:10.22034/Athar.1897
URL: http://athar.richt.ir/article-2-1897-en.html

Abstract
Various methods and approaches in the study of Ilkhanid art and archaeology have led to diverse and sometimes contradictory results. Nevertheless, most researchers agree that the surviving works from this period were influenced by various styles, methods, and forces, and that through detailed study and examination, the involved paradigms can be identified as much as possible. The aim of the present research is to study and analyze the manifestations of traditionalism and Mongol tribal concepts in the most important examples of Ilkhanid architecture, painting, and coinage, based on the foundations of the sociology of art and schools of historical and economic evolution. This research seeks to answer the question: To what extent and in what manner have the traditionalism and tribal traditions of the Mongols manifested in the studied works? This research is a type of qualitative research and has examined the data through a descriptive-analytical approach. The data were gathered through both library and fieldwork methods. According to the findings, the traditional and tribal concepts of the early Mongols were not entirely removed or assimilated after the onset of the invasions, and in some cases, they were transferred to the western regions they occupied, including Iran, and can be identified to some extent in various works. These themes are manifested directly or indirectly in some Ilkhanid architectural works, paintings, and coinage. Mongol traditional and tribal themes are evident in the selection of sites for the establishment of new Ilkhanid cities and architectural complexes, in accordance with steppe traditions; in the planting and cultivation of steppe plants in gardens and building grounds; the importance of Ordu Bazars; the influence of the decorations and structure of Mongolian yurts in the form of certain Ilkhanid tombs; as well as the influence of matriarchy and mourning customs common among early Mongols in the themes of some illustrations from the Great Mongol Shahnameh and the presence of Uyghur concepts in the visual elements of Ilkhanid coins.
Keywords: Ilkhanid Period, Traditionalism, Mongol Tribal Traditions, Sociology of Art.

Introduction
Sociology of art, through its study of art, seeks to uncover and demonstrate the social influences on it. Understanding the characteristics of society in any given time period, and the role of society in the emergence and transformation of artistic subjects, involves analyzing how various economic, political, social, and other factors influence art. It also examines how art shapes, evolves, or declines in each society, uncovering the impact of different social and political elements on artistic works, with the goal of obtaining a deeper understanding of the studied society. This inherently sociological approach is articulated by Rauderad (2015). According to the reflectionist approach in sociology of art, the content of an artwork is directly related to the historical, social, and other characteristics of the period in which it was created (Duvenio, 2020).
Although the Mongols, influenced by the civilizations of China, Iran, and others, distanced themselves from their early traditions, elements of their old tribal customs and traditions persisted within these newly conquered territories, particularly during the Ilkhanid period. Alongside the feudal system (Hicks, 1976: 27-28) and bureaucracy (Razavi, 2011: 69-70), manifestations of these ancient and tribal customs can be found, and they can be analyzed through careful study of the historical and material sources that have survived. Despite extensive research in the fields of Ilkhanid art, architecture, and archaeology, no study has been conducted on analyzing and identifying Mongol and Uyghur themes in the arts of this period. Existing studies are limited to brief mentions in various books.
The aim of the present research is to examine, analyze, and identify the manifestations of Mongol tribalism and traditionalism in Ilkhanid art in Iran, and to explore how these themes are reflected in the significant works of architecture, painting, and coinage from this period. This research is important because, until now, no independent study has been conducted on the discovery of Mongol traditional and tribal elements in the archaeological and artistic data from this era. Previous works have only touched on these themes briefly. To achieve the research goal, the following question arises: To what extent and in what manner have the manifestations of traditionalism and Mongol themes been reflected in the key architectural, painting, and coinage works of the Ilkhanid period, and how can they be traced? This study is qualitative in nature and uses a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the data. To address the research questions and achieve its goals, data was gathered from primary sources, credible research materials, and field and museum visits. Since it is not feasible to analyze all the architectural or painting works from the Ilkhanid period, after initial studies and examinations, key works were selected for detailed analysis.

Discussion
This study examines the manifestations of traditionalism and Mongol tribal customs in the arts of the Ilkhanid period, and, through the analysis of archaeological and historical data, demonstrates the influence of these concepts in the architecture, painting, and coinage of the period. The findings indicate that despite cultural and political changes, Mongol traditions were not completely eradicated and are manifested, either directly or indirectly, in certain works from this period.
In architecture, the influence of Mongolian yurts is evident in the structure of Ilkhanid tombs. A comparison of the multi-layered, aerodynamic yurts with the tower-shaped tombs in Shadabad, Tabriz, and Alnajq, Marand, illustrates the continuation of these traditions. Additionally, the location of cities and architectural complexes, such as Shamb Ghazan, Soltaniyeh, and the Maragheh observatory, was influenced by steppe traditions and shamanistic beliefs. The planting of steppe plants around these buildings also reflects the early Mongol culture.
In painting, two illustrations from the Great Mongol Shahnameh were analyzed. The illustration titled “Ferdowsi Asking His Mother About His Ancestry” reflects the matriarchal society of the Mongols and refers to the political decisions of Abū Saʿīd Ilkhānī. The illustration “The Funeral of Esfandiar” depicts Mongol mourning rituals, with elements such as the cut manes of horses and grieving figures, which align with Mongol burial traditions.
In Ilkhanid coinage, Uyghur and shamanistic motifs appear throughout the period. Phrases such as “Qaan” and “Qaan al-Azam,” as well as inscriptions in the Uyghur script, emphasize the political legitimacy of the Mongols. Moreover, the selection of verse 26 from Surah Al-Imran, with its theme of determinism, corresponds to Mongol shamanistic beliefs. The location of the coin minting, titled Ordu Bazar, highlights the importance of traditional trade markets outside of cities.
This research shows that, alongside adopting elements of Iranian and Islamic culture, the Mongols maintained their tribal traditions in artistic forms. This fusion is evident not only in architecture and painting but also in political symbols like coinage, reflecting the complex interaction between traditionalism and the bureaucratic system during the Ilkhanid period.

Conclusion
Despite the abundance and diversity of sources, discussions surrounding the Mongol Empire in general and the Ilkhanate in particular have always been accompanied by ambiguities and disagreements. These complexities are particularly pronounced in the area of the origins of artistic patterns and styles from this period, which are undoubtedly influenced by the epistemological weaknesses of researchers in this field. The Mongol Empire and the Ilkhanid government are among those that rapidly advanced through the adoption of the legacies of civilized nations, reaching high levels of culture, industry, and more in newly conquered lands. While the influences of art from earlier periods in Iran, China, and other regions on Ilkhanid art have been frequently studied, the focus of this research was on the influence of early Mongol culture, or what could be termed Mongol traditionalism, on the arts of the Ilkhanid period. According to the findings of this research, the impact of Mongol tribal and traditional culture is evident in some of the archaeological and historical data from this period, though it mostly appears indirectly in the surviving works.
Attention to the interior decorations of buildings from the Ilkhanid period, alongside influences from Seljuk styles, also reveals the impact of the intricate interior decorations of Mongol yurts. Comparing the general shape of Mongol conical, double-layered yurts with the structure of certain minarets and tombstones in the Ilkhanid period, as well as the structure and spatial organization of tombs in some Ilkhanid complexes, such as the crypt in Soltaniyeh, demonstrates the presence of tribal, traditional, and shamanistic influences. Decentralized tendencies and the teachings of the Mongol Yasa are reflected in the selection of locations for the construction of cities and architectural complexes, as well as in the significant role of Ordu Bazar in the economy of this period. Historical sources indicate that, by the orders of the Ilkhanid Khans, plants native to the steppe region were cultivated in places like Shamb Ghazan, Rabe Rashidi, and Soltaniyeh.
The reflection of the early Mongol matriarchal concept in the illustration “Ferdowsi Asking His Mother About His Ancestry” and the depiction of Mongol mourning rituals in the painting “The Funeral of Esfandiar” from the Great Mongol Shahnameh serve as examples of traditionalism in Ilkhanid painting. Uyghur and shamanistic motifs in the visual elements of Ilkhanid coins are observable from the early years of their rule in Iran through to the later periods. The Mongols used Uyghur and Mongol themes to gain acceptance among the great Khans and Mongol nobility, while also adopting Islamic and Iranian motifs simultaneously to legitimize their rule in Iran and other conquered regions.